Chapter 2 :- Interior Decoration

Interior Decoration:- Interior decoration can be a highly personal form of self-expression. It is the sum of one's interests as an individual or a group-a personal statement created by combining various elements of art by using certain principles.

Types of Design:-

Structural Design- It denotes the structure or construction of objects. This is comprised of the size, form,colour, and texture of an object, be it the object itself, or the drawing of the object worked out on paper.
Decorative Design - This is the surface enrichment of structural design. Any lines,colour,or materials that have been applied to structural design for the purpose of adding a richer quality to it constitute its decorative design.

(A.) Elements of Design:-

1. Line- Lines have a positive emotional significance, depending upon their direction and their quality.

Vertical lines- Vertical lines suggest steadfastness, sturdiness, or an upward aim. They create a feeling of height. Example- vertical lines of doorways,pillars, columns, draperies, and furniture give the necessary strength and height to the room.
Horizontal lines- Horizontal lines naturally suggests rest,repose,or steadiness. These lines give solidity and a down-to-earth feeling. Example- the horizontal line of tables, sofas,and other furniture complement the severely vertical lines in other parts of an area.
Diagonal lines- These are lines of action, disturbing of straight lines and the solidity of horizontal lines. Forward-slanting lines suggest 'push' and backward-slanting lines suggest 'pull'. Example- diagonal lines appear in staircases and sometimes in curtains, draperies, and wallpaper.
Curved lines- Curved lines indicate flexibility and grace. Example- curved lines may form a transition between the abrupt joining of vertical and horizontal lines, such as those formed by tied back curtains, arches,and the graceful curves of furniture.

2. Form- The term 'form' is applied to three-dimensional areas and objects, whereas 'shape' may refer to a two-dimensional one. Without the beauty of form, good texture, colour, or decoration can be of no use.

3. Texture- The word 'texture' refers to the tactile quality of the surface of any object or area. It refers to the surface quality- how something feels when we touch it and how it behaves when light strikes it. Two basic categories of texture are tactile and visual.

Tactile or actual texture It can be felt by hand- be it rough like unglazed brick or smooth like velvet.
Visual or illusionary- It may be absolutely smooth to touch, but give the impression of texture.

4. Colour- The appeal of colour is universal. Colour is the impression received by the brain from certain stimulations of the retina in the eye. Its perception occurs because objects reflect or transmit light that enters the eye.

5. Pattern- This refers to any sort of surface enrichment and applies to both two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects. A large room can support more patterns than a small one. Patterns used may be naturalistic, stylized, geometric, or abstract. If walls and carpets are plain, then draperies and upholstery may be patterned.

6. Light- When light strikes an object, it may be reflected, absorbed,or allowed to pass through. Light has a functional as well as an aesthetic effect. Light may be dull or sharp, bright or diffused.

7. Space - Space refers to the area that a shape or form occupies. It also refers to the background against which we see the shape or form. Space can be defined as positive and negative. The positive space of a design is the filled space in the design—often it is the shapes that make up the design. Negative space is the background. The negative space in design is as important as the positive area.

(B.) Colour and its role in decor - Types of Colour Schemes:-

Colour- Design's most exciting element.

Dimensions or qualities of Colour:-

Hue- The name given to a colour such as red,blue, green, etc. The colours of an object is determined by the wavelengths of the light it reflects. 'Colour ' is a general term and 'hue' is a specific term referring to definite identifiable colours.
Value- This describes the lightness or darkness of a colour. White is the highest value and no hue can be as light as white. Black is the lowest value and no hue can be darker than black.

Tint- Made by adding white to a colour so that it is lighter.

Shade- Made by adding black to a colour so that it is darker.

Intensity/ chroma- This refers to the brightness or dullness of a colour. Fuschia- high intensity, Olive- low intensity.

Warm Colours- Red, Yellow, Orange

Appear hot like sun or like fire
Give feelings of activity or cheerfulness
Appear to advance- they make body look larger
Can give a nervous impression if overdone

Cool Colours - Blue, Green, Purple

Remind us of water or sky
Give feelings of quietness or restfulness
Appear to recede and make body look smaller
Can be depressing if overdone

Colour Wheel:-

1. Primary Colours :- These are basic pigments which form all colours. They cannot be obtained by mixing other hues. Red, yellow,and blue are the fundamental or primary colours, which can be mixed so as to form all the other colours, but which cannot themselves be made by mixing any other colours.

2. Secondary/ Binary Colours:- Secondary colours result when two primary colours are mixed in equal amounts.

Purple--> Red + Blue

Orange--> Yellow + Red

Green --> Yellow + Blue

The primary and secondary colours are together called the six standard colours.

3. Tertiary/ Intermediate Colours :- When a primary colour and a neighbouring secondary are mixed in equal amounts, an intermediate hue results. In appearance, the intermediate is halfway between its adjacent colours. There are thus six intermediate hues: yellow-green; red-purple; blue-green; red- orange; blue-purple; and yellow-orange.

Colour Schemes:-

1. Monochromatic Colour Scheme- This is a one- colour plan that uses different tints,shades and intensities of the colour.

2. Analogous Colour Scheme- This colour scheme uses related, or neighbouring colours on the colour wheel with varying values and intensities of the colour.

3. Complementary Colour Scheme- This colour scheme uses opposite hues on the colour wheel. These colours are across from each other on the wheel and have great contrast.

4. Split-Complementary Colour Scheme- This colour scheme uses three colours ,one colour with the two colours on each side of its complement.

5. Triad Colour Scheme- This colour scheme combines three colours equidistant on the colour wheel and has a great deal of contrast.

6. Accented Neutral Colour Scheme- This colour scheme combines white,black, gray or sometimes beige with a bright colour accent.

(C.) Windows and Window Treatment:-

Windows have four practical functions: they admit air,light,vision, and people to varying degrees.

Assessment of Windows:-

Any assessment of windows should take into account the following considerations:

View and privacy
Light
Ventilation

Structure of a Window:-

Windows consist of a wooden frame around the side and top edges, and this fixed part of the window is called a casement or frame. It is designed to hold the sash, which is a wood or metal frame that holds the glass panes and is usually movable. The sill forms the base of the window, on which the casement rest. The strip of wood sometimes placed underneath the still for support is called the apron.

Types of Windows:-

Fixed Windows- These are meant for providing light and a view,essentially.

Double-hung Windows- These are also called sash windows. They consist of two glass panes,both of which may be opened independently.

Casement Windows- The window panes are in two halves that open outwards from the frame. They are very good for illuminating a room naturally, as they offer least obstruction to light.

Awning and Projected Windows- These have framed units hinged horizontally to swing in or out in various configurations.

Louvered Windows/ Jalousie- These are made up of several glass panes resting on slits in the window frame. A special form of awning windows, these use very small hinged louvers of glass.

Sliding Windows- They consist of a pane of standard glass or polymer plastic, bound in vinyl or aluminum frames and built into a track system. They operate horizontally.

Single Windows- A single window is the basic window with a single frame; it opens either inside or outside.

Mullion Windows- These really consist of a series of windows. Each window can be treated as a separate unit or unified into a single design.

Bay Windows- These are three-dimensional windows made by placing windows on three walls that meet to form an alcove protruding outwards. They are usually large and give the room an illusion of spaciousness, beside serving their functional purpose.

Bow Windows- This are made up of a number of windows and each window has smaller windows within. This type of window helps to reduce the intensity of the sunlight as a large glass pane is covered by a little woodwork.

Windows Treatments:-

In essence, window treatments are used to control the degree to which windows perform their various functions. They have great design potential as sources of beauty and character too.

Types of Windows Treatments:-

A.) Stiff Window Treatments- There are many types of coverings apart from curtains that can be used on windows to ensure privacy and block out light.

1.) Blinds:-

Roller Blinds- These let in plenty of light when drawn up, yet give complete privacy when unrolled and let down. Roller blinds are made of thick fabrics used in conjunction with rollers.
Roman Blinds- These are made of fabric attached to cords. When the cords are pulled, the blind rises up in accordion pleats to form a pelmet. They are heavier and warmer than roller blinds.
Venetian Blinds- They are made of parallel slats of wood, metal, or plastic aligned horizontally and vertically. They are popular for their almost complete control of air, light, and view. They are usually low in price.
Vertical Louvre Blinds- These are most effective on a large floor-to-ceiling window. They work on the same principal as the venetian blinds, except that they close across the window rather than down. The slats are wider than in the Venetian type, but less opaque.
Pinoleum Blinds- These are an inexpensive covering for large windows. They are made from fine strips of wood held together by cotton, and let a pleasant, soft light filter through. They may be mounted on a spring-operated roller or moved up and down by cords.
Austrian Blinds- These are ruched fabrics (trimmed with gathers). They may be used partially raised, and when fully raised, they form a decorative pelmet. They are used in banquet halls and large lobbies for a sumptuous effect.

2.) Shades:-

Bamboo and Woven Wood Shades- Slatted shades have an advantage in that they let through some light and air, and allow outwards- only visibility in the daytime. They block the inward view at the same time, depending on the tightness of the weave or the size of the slats.
Fabric Roller Shades- These are inexpensive and can be flexibly adjusted to cover as much of the window as required at a particular time. They can be translucent, letting in some light, or completely opaque.

3.) Shutters:- These consist of moveable wooden slats fixed on a wooden framework. In sections, they can provide varying degrees of privacy and light control.

Louvred shutters are like lightweight doors made of overlapping wooden slats, spaced apart to let light through. For large windows, they are made in hinged sections, which fold flat against one another to reveal the window opening. Although their initial coat is high, shutters last almost indefinitely. They are difficult to dust,but their wood is generally sealed against soils.

4.) Screens:- These are in the form of hardboard panels with cut-out panels of fabric stretched across the wooden frame. They are attached immovably to the window frame around edges and so do not allow much flexibility in the control of light, unless combined with another type of shutter or pane.

Shoji screens are traditional Japanese screens for which modern interiors have a natural affinity. They were originally made of rice paper mounted on a wooden frame coated with black lacquer, but they are now available in translucent plastic materials.

B.) Soft Window Treatments- Soft window treatments comprise curtains, valances,swags,etc.

1.) Curtains:- Plain,heavy curtains falling down to the floor can be used to create a formal setting. Short curtains made of light, brightly patterned fabrics are used to create an informal, relaxed atmosphere.

Curtains fulfil several important functions:

They give flexible control over privacy, heat,and light.
They can add colour and pattern to the decor.
They cover bareness and furnish a room even without furniture.
They can change the apparent size of a room or conceal architectural flaws.
They soak up noise in proportion to the area they cover, the thickness of the fabric, and the depths of the folds.

Types of Curtains:-

Glass Curtains- These are also called sheer or net curtains and are usually made of cotton or polyester. They are appealing in light pastel shades.
Drapes/ Over-curtains- Draperies refer to loosely hung soft furnishings. These are made of heavier fabrics and may be lined. The heading is usually pleated. Draperies can be decorative, as well as providing privacy, darkening a room, and insulating it against the cold.
Sash Curtains- These are a type of glass curtain hung on the window sash. They can be stretched taut between rods along the top and bottom of the window sashes or hung in loose folds.
Casement Curtains- These cover the entire window and have casings at both top and bottom.
French Cafe Curtains- These cover only the lower part of the window, with the casing slipped over a tension rod mounted in the window frame. They provide privacy at one level and light at another.
Tie-backs:- Either one panel can be tied back to one side or both the panels can be tied back to the two sides. They are often tied back to the window frame.
Cottage Curtains- These are a combination of the cafe curtain and tie-back styles.
Tier Curtains- These are double-decker cafe curtains.

2.) Valances:- These are made of fabric that has been pleated, scalloped, or ruffled. They should never exceed one-sixth of the window's height and should be about 8-12 inches in depth. Lambrequins have a backing of buckram, plywood,or masonite,which can be shaped into different designs. These shaped valances may be covered with cloth and edges with fringe. The width of a lambrequin should be about a seventh of the length of floor-length drapery.

3.) Swags and cascades:- Swags are decorative, drapery treatments meant to hide the curtain headings and usually taper to a cascade (also called a tail). These loop and fall luxuriously over a curtain pole, ending in elaborate tails. Headings of this type are appropriate for large,formal rooms with high ceilings. They tend to look too heavy in small or average sized rooms. The depth of the swag at the centre after it has been draped should be about one-seventh of the drapery length or one-seventh of the distance between the top of the frame and the floor.

(D.) Lighting and Lighting Fixtures:-

Light is a form of energy without which there can be no vision. When light strikes an object, it may be reflected, absorbed, or allowed to pass through.

Measurement of Light:-

Light is measured in lumen and lux.
The amount of light given out by the light source is measured in lumen.
Lux is the measure of illumination at or on the surface being illuminated.

Types of Light:-

Source- based classification:-

1.) Natural light- The bright radiant energy of the sun,daylight, is a major determining factor in the design of hotel guestrooms and homes, especially where large wall areas have been decorated with glass.

2.) Artificial light- Well-planned artificial illumination helps us to see without strain and helps to prevent accidents. At night, much of a room's character is determined by artificial illumination.

Incandescent/ filament- Light is produced by heating any material, usually metal, to a temperature at which it glows. Typical incandescent bulbs have a tungsten filament in a sealed glass container. The advantage of this type of lighting is that the fixtures and bulbs cost less than the fixtures and tubes used in the fluorescent or discharge types. Halogen lamps are another source of incandescent light.
Fluorescent/ discharge- Fluorescent tubes are a luminescent or 'cold' (not produced by heat) source of light. A glass tube with an inside coating of fluorescent powder is filled with vapourized mercury and argon. The ends are then sealed with two cathodes.

Depending on the pressure inside the tube, they can further be classified into low-pressure and high-pressure lamps.

Low-pressure lamps:- These are the most widely used tubular fluorescent lamps. They are primarily low-pressure mercury tubes, generally in the form of a long tubular bulb with an electrode sealed into each end and containing mercury vapour at low pressure, with an inert gas for starting the reaction. When a discharge is started, UV rays are produced. The fluorescent powder coating the inner surface of the tube converts these UV rays into visible light.

Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps are the most efficient light sources and are used in yard and street lighting. The light produced by these is yellow in colour.

High-pressure lamps:- These include high-pressure mercury vapour (HPMV) and high-pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps. HPMV lamps produce a bluish white light, whereas HPSVs produce a golden yellow light.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) :- A diode is a type of semiconductor. In an LED, one half of the lighting element is a semiconductive material with added impurities that contain an abundance of electrons that are negatively charged. This side is called the 'n-type' semiconductor. The other half contains the semiconductive material with added impurities that contain positively charged carriers. This side is called the 'p-type' semiconductor. The boundary between these two is called the 'p-n junction' . As the electric current passes across the p-n junction, the electrons from n-type side fill holes in the p-type side. During this process, the electrons change their state from higher orbit to lower orbit resulting in loss of energy. This loss of energy is in the form of a photon of light.

Direction-based classification:-

1.) Direct lighting- This kind of light comes from sources such as ceiling fixtures or luminous ceilings that shed light downwards, or from lamps with translucent shades spreading light in all directions.

2.) Indirect lighting- This is usually from concealed sources in alcoves, cornices, or valances. It may also come from a lamp with an opaque shade open only at the top- light is then thrown against the ceiling or washes against a wall and is reflected back into the room.

3.) Diffused lighting- When light fittings are completely enclosed or concealed, as with some globes and ceiling panels, the light is diffused since it passes through the glass or plastic. Diffused lighting is also glare-free and produces a flat appearance.

4.) Semi-indirect lighting- It is possible to have some light passing through a diffusing bowl and some reflected off the ceiling where the fixture is open on top. This is called semi-indirect lighting.

Function-based classification:-

1.) General or area lighting- This illuminates the room more or less uniformly. It brings the design and colours of the whole space to equal attention. It minimizes the bulkiness of furniture, the darkness of shadows, and harsh contrasts.

2.) Local or specific lighting- Specific activities at specific locations need specific lighting. Local lighting can be provided by lamps at strategic points. Fixtures attached to walls or the ceiling, under cabinets, alone or in multiples, are growing in popularity. Chandeliers are the most popular form of local lighting and are also highly decorative. This type of lighting may be either by way of task lighting or accent lighting.

Task lighting is for

reading or other close work;
sewing, needlework, and other crafts of various kinds; and
cooking, especially in areas where electrical appliances or knives are employed.

Accent lighting is for

highlighting a painting or other art object;
focusing on an architectural element;
illuminating a bank of plants not placed near a window;

3.) Safety lighting- as the name suggests, this type of bright lighting is used for safety reasons in areas such as stairways, along corridors, around swimming pools, and by way of emergency lighting.

Methods of Lighting :-

1.) Architectural and built-in lighting:- This method of lighting supplies light that is functional and unobtrusive and is particularly good for contemporary rooms. It may be achieved in the following ways:

Valance lighting- A horizontal fluorescent tube is placed behind a valance board, casting light upwards so that it reflects off the ceiling and also downwards to shine on the drapery, thus producing both indirect and direct lighting.
Cornice lighting- A cornice is installed under the ceiling, with a fixture hidden beneath so as to direct light downwards only. This can give a dramatic effect on drapery, pictures, and wall coverings.
Cove lighting- This consists of placing a continuous series of fluorescent tubes in a groove along one or more walls of a room, about 12 inches from the ceiling. The light reflects off the ceiling and bathes the room in indirect light.
Track lighting- Travk lighting consists of lamps fixed to the ceiling or wall in an array to offer great variety.
Soffit lighting- This refers to a built-in light source under a panel. It may be fixed to a ceiling or under a cabinet. Soffit lighting is often used over a sink or other work areas.
Luminous or recessed lighting- This is primarily used for kitchens,utility areas,bathrooms, etc.

2.) Non-architectural lighting:- These types include various fixtures and lamps.

Ceiling fixtures- These have become common nowadays owing to vastly improved designs. Some are inconspicuously recessed into the ceiling or set flush with it. They may soften light with louvers or diffuse it with lenses.
Wall fixtures- These remain out of the way and free table and desk surfaces for other things. At the same time, they give direct light where it is needed.
Portable lamps- Floor and table lamps can be moved when and where they are needed. They also act as decorative accessories.

(E.) Floor Finishes:-

Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor, or for the work of installing such a floor covering. Floor covering is a term to generically describe any finish material applied over a floor structure to provide a walking surface. Both terms are used interchangeably but floor covering refers more to loose-laid materials.

Floor surfaces cover a large area of the room and are subject to constant wear. They are expensive and replace less frequently than other furnishings. Improperly laid floors or damaged floors can cause accidents and damage to the equipment. Floor surfaces must be comfortable and quiet besides contributing to the décor of the room. The traffic in the area and utility of the room must also be considered.

Factors Determining the Floor Finish

Appearance: Colour, pattern and texture of the floor surfaces should be compatible with the size, décor and activity of the room. Pale colours provide a cool appearance of warmth. Patterned surfaces add interest to the room.

Comfort: Foot fatigue should be reduced by use of soft resilient surfaces. Floor surfaces should not be noisy or slippery.

Durability: Grit, dragging of furniture and placement of equipment or circulation of heavy traffic should not damage the floor surface. They should also not be affected by the cleaning reagents and food spillages.

Life Expectancy: Since floor surfaces are not changed frequently, they are expected to last for longer time.

Safety: Safety to the guests and occupants must be considered. Fire resistance, slip resistance and accident proof surfaces must be selected.

Ease of Cleaning: Ease of maintenance and cleaning costs must be considered while selecting them.

Cost: The cost of the floor surface, cost of laying and maintenance should be considered before selection.

Types of Floors Surfaces/Finish

Floor surfaces are divided into two types hard and soft floors. A subfloor is laid below the floor surface, which may be made of softwood or hardboard. It should be free from dampness, dirt and unevenness. This protects the top floor.

HARD FLOOR SURFACES

Stone Floor Surfaces: These are commonly used in areas that must withstand heavy traffic, repeated washing and movement of goods. These floors are extremely durable and hygienic.

Concrete: It is composed of cement and sand. Pigments may be added to provide colour. This floor can withstand large weights but is damaged by acids and alkalis. It is suitable for stores, sub-floors, laundry, staircase etc. Concrete is extremely porous, hard and soiled easily. A scaler may be applied to make it stain resistant. These floors are suitable in halls, lounges, corridors, and bathrooms and as tabletops.

Wooden Floor Surfaces: These floors are used in all types of establishments for corridors, dance floors, bar areas, dining halls, game rooms etc. They are more attractive than stone but are very porous and easily damaged by moisture and pests. A ceiling polish must be applied to increase durability. Strips of wood are cut into varying lengths and laid on a subfloor. The colour of the floor will depend upon the type of wood used. Oak and teak are the common types of wood used for flooring. Designs can be created by varying the colour of wooden tiles (blocks) and arranging them in different patterns.

Cork Tiles: Cork is obtained from the bark of the cork of oak tree. It is the least resistant of the hard floor surface. It is a good insulator, warm, resilient and quite easy to maintain. It has a high degree of slip resistance but the tiles cannot withstand heavy furniture, grease, and moisture and alkalis. The colour of natural cork is brown and pigments may be added to obtain other colours e.g. Green.

Resilient Floor Surfaces: These floor surfaces include certain plastics or finishes which make them moisture and grease resilient.

Terrazzo: This consists of marble chips, set in cement. It may be plain or coloured and ground smooth. This is not used in small areas but preferred around pools and in gardens. These floors are porous and damaged by acids, alkalis and grease. They are unharmed by water and have good slip resistance when polished. The common colours are white, green, blue and black.

Granolithic concrete: This is plain concrete structural flooring on which a surface of granite chippings and cement is cast on site. The final surface is hard-wearing and its appearance is improved if the surface is polished to expose the aggregate in the concrete. This heavy-duty flooring is used for basement corridors, storerooms,stairways and laundry areas.

Ceramic Tiles: Ceramic tiles are made of clay and fired at high temperature. They are hand or machine made, glazed and unglazed. Shapes of the tiles may be square, rectangular or hexagonal. Tiles are waterproof and impervious to cleaning liquid. They are commonly used in bathrooms, kitchens, laundry, canteens, bars etc. These floors are hard, noisy and tire the feet. Ceramic floors should not be polished since that would make it dangerously slippery.

Mosaic: They are made of glass, silica and clay. They may be set directly on the floor or made as tiles and laid on a subfloor unaffected by pests or fungi and the glass can be retained for a long time.

Timber: Well-maintained timber floor surfaces provide attractive hygienic, warm and serviceable floors for a long time. They may be laid as strips, boards or blocks. Floorboards are made from softwoods while strips are constructed from hardwoods. The colour of the floor depends upon the natural grain. A sealer may be applied or a polish given to the wooden floor to make it glossy and dirt resistant.

Chip Board: Chipboard is obtained by mixing wood chippings or sawdust with resin or cement at high temperature and pressure. Unlike timber, it does not warm or split.

Linoleum: This is made up of lignum, i.e. flax and ileum in oil. Ground corkwood, linseed oil and resins (gum) are pressed on to a jute backing. This is prepared in sheet or tile form. Plain colours marbling or patterns may be applied for decorative effect. Linoleum may crack if laid on the poor quality subfloor. It is hard wearing, resilient and warm, but may peel, rot and gets destroyed by alkalis. It is non-flammable but burns marks can be seen. This is suitable for the linen room, store pantry, kitchen stores.

Rubber: Rubber floors are usually made by a combination of natural and synthetic rubber. They may be laid in sheets or tile form. They may be coloured and mottled with inlaid patterns. The floor is hard wearing, resilient, quiet and waterproof. It is non-slip and maybe grease resistant. Damage may occur due to alkalis, acids and spirits. They are not affected by mould, bacteria and pest infestation. It is commonly used in kitchens, bathrooms, health clubs, near swimming pools etc.

Thermoplastic Floors: These are made of asphalt, fibres, mineral fillers and pigments or synthetic resins with a vinyl binder. The tiles are usually dark coloured and quite durable. They have good thermal insulation and are resistant to water. They are damaged by heat, acids and alkalis. They are useful in canteens, corridors, shops and offices. PVC may be added to make hard thermoplastic more flexible.

Vinyl: Vinyl is made from asbestos, fibres, mineral pigments and PVC. They are very hygienic and deal in hospitals, kitchens, dining area, nurseries, common rooms, lifts etc. They are water and oil resistant and can be made slip resistant. They are damaged by cleaning gels, high temperature and acids.

Floor Coverings or soft floors

Floor coverings or soft floors are used for variety in colour, texture and design. They are warm, durable, quiet, slip resistant and economical. Various types of colourings may be used in different areas depending upon the cost of maintenance, cost of installation, attractiveness and use. Soft floor coverings commonly consist of two types: Carpets and Rugs.

Carpets: Carpets are used extensively in hotels and institutional establishment. The type of carpet selected will depend upon the suitability and traffic in the area. They may be used in bedrooms, lounges, TV rooms, restaurants, office and corridors. A good quality carpet should be able to withstand spillages, cigarette ash and grit. They must also be resilient to heavy furniture.

Carpet Construction: Carpets consist of three layers: a pile, a background and an underlay. The pile is held into the backing with knots and adhesives. The underlay acts as a shock absorber between the backing and the subfloor. It makes the carpet softer and provides insulation. Underlay may be made of felt, rubber, foam or jute with polypropylene backing.

Backing: Natural materials like jute, hemp, glue and starch are used with resin, synthetic rubber and polypropylene to form the backing. A secondary backing may be added to improve resilience.

Pile: The carpet pile absorbs most of the wear. It should be strong and resilient, shrink- proof, moth proof and flameproof. The carpet pile is frequently made of blends of fibres.

Wool: Woollen carpets are warm, soft, resilient and do not attract dirt. However, they are difficult to maintain and quite expensive. They may be blended with 20% nylon.

Acrylic: This is close to wool in appearance, wears well, is warm and resilient but soils easily. This is not easy to clean and not fire resistant.

Polyester: This is often blended with nylon. This is waterproof, easy to clean, soft and hard wearing.

Viscose Rayon: This is inexpensive and not hard wearing and is sometimes used in blended carpets along with nylon.

(F.) Carpets:-

The quality of a carpet depends not only on the method of manufacture, but also on how well the carpet is made, the fibres used, the quality of that fiber, and the density of the pile. A good quality carpet should be able to withstand wear from constant footfalls, spillages, cigarette ash, and grit and also have the ability to recover from the effects of heavy or sharp furniture. The pile should be dense and made from strong fibres, held firmly in position.

Composition:-

Carpets primarily have three components- an underlay, a backing, and a face or pile. The pile is held to the backing with knots (in the case of Woven carpets) or with adhesives. An underlay is essential if a woven carpet is to be laid, but many manufacturing techniques provide carpets with backings of sufficient resilience to make an underlay unnecessary.

Underlay/padding- Underlay or 'under-felt' acts as a shock absorber between the carpet backing and any unevenness in the sub-floor, which could cause the carpet pile to wear unevenly. Underlays are made of plain needle felt material, impregnated felt-rubber foam,rubber foam with a jute or polyurethane backing, or a combination of needle felt and rubber foam.
Backing- The primary backing is the one in which the pile of the carpet is anchored. It may be made of natural materials such as jute,hemp, or cotton;of synthetic materials such as polypropylene, nylon, various resins,or synthetic rubber; or of a combination of natural and synthetic materials.
Pile- Also called the 'face' of the carpet, this is the part which is seen on the surface and walked on. The pile may be made of a blend of fibers or of exclusively synthetic or natural fibres.

Kinds of Pile:-

Hard-twist pile:- This is a cut pile with a heavy twist built into the yarn, giving it a pebbly look. It is used mainly in plain carpets, but it can be combined with other types of pile to give a textured effect.
Looped pile:- The pile is uncut and is made up of a continuous series of loops. It can give various textures, from a thick and knobbly pile to the closely curled low-loop pile that is like an irregular cord carpet. Looped pile is used in Wilton and tufted carpets.
Cut pile:- The loops of the pile are cut in such carpets. Tufted and woven carpets are produced in cut pile;in Axminster carpets, it is the only type of pile produced.
Shag pile:- This can be produced on a tufting machine or on a Wilton or Axminster loom. The pile is long and shaggy and has a luxurious look.
Woven cord pile:- This type is produced on a Wilton loom. The pile is left uncut, giving a tight, corded effect. Most cord carpets are made of sisal or man-made fibres. If the fibre is of good quality, cord offers better resistance to wear than velvet pile.
Velvet pile:- Sometimes called velours, this is a close-cut pile that has a smooth, velvety appearance. It is used mainly for plain and two-tone carpets.
Sculptured pile:- A combination of cut and looped pile gives a carved or sculptured effect. Different lengths of cut pile and of straight and twisted pile can also be combined. These combinations are used mainly in Wilton and tufted carpets.

TYPES OF CARPETS:

This falls into two main categories:

WOVEN CARPETS

Wilton
Axminster
Oriental

NON-WOVEN CARPETS

Tufted
Bonded
Berber
Knitted

WOVEN CARPETS:

These are constructed on three types of looms- velvet, Wilton, & Axminster. They always have yarns in backing called warp & weft. Warp yarns run lengthwise, weft run crosswise

1.) Wilton Carpets:
The Wilton carpet is made on a jacquard loom. A traditional woven Wilton carpet has pile threads that run in a continuous fashion into the carpet and are lifted above the surface of the backing with either wires or hooks.

2.) Axminster Carpets:
Axminster can accommodate any number of colored yarns & produce precise complicated patterns. Pile height is always even & the back is heavily ribbed. There the main characteristic is that the pattern can be seen on the other side. there are three types of Axminster carpets.

3.) Oriental Carpets:
These are available in a variety of sizes. Names based on country of origin .e.g. Chinese, Indian, and Persian, etc. these are only made as carpet pieces that are standalone rectangles the density of the carpet

NON-WOVEN CARPETS:

1.) Tufted carpets:
In these thousands of needles, threaded with pile yarns & extending 12 to 15 feet across the machine, is forced through the backing material to form loops or tufts. The backing may be woven fabric such as jute & the loops anchored under the jute backing(Hessian) with a hot layer of latex compound.

2.) Bonded Carpets:
These are neither woven nor tufted. They are hardwearing & make an economical floor covering with good pile.

Pile Bonded/ knitted- Here the pile is made and stuck to PVC. These generally have a pile of nylon or polypropylene which is stuck into a PVC backing. Pile Bonded carpets are also available as tiles.
Needle Punched- These carpets are made by a process that compacts & mechanically joins fibers to form a felt-like surface. Needles literally ‘punch’ the fiber into a foam or latex backing. Usually, these are used for outdoor installations.
Electro Statically Flocked- These are produced by projecting electrically charged fibers downwards into an adhesive-coated backing material. These are hard-wearing easy to clean and quick to dry. They are mostly used in a very wet area. Swimming pool and in the kitchen area.

3.) Berber Carpets:
These carpets have short tufts; the pile is dense & lopped, characteristically made of natural undyed sheep’s wool. Berber carpets are a modern style of carpet, distinguished by a loop pile construction type, and usually contain small flecks of dark color on lighter shades of background colors.

4.) Knitted Carpets:
These are produced by interlacing yarns in a series of connected loops. As in woven carpets, the pile & the backing are produced simultaneously. Multiple sets of needles interlace the pile, backing, & stitching yarns together in one operation.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF CARPETS

A regular maintenance program is a must for carpets since they are easily soiled or damaged. Good maintenance increases the life of the carpet. Most new carpets shed fluff for the first few weeks. During this period carpets should be lightly brushed. After a month carpet should be vacuumed once a week. To even out wear furniture should be moved occasionally. Avoid dragging heavy furniture over the carpet, as this damages the fiber.

Routine Care
This involves daily removal of dust from the carpet. Dust is usually removed using a dry suction vacuum cleaner or carpet sweeper. Care should be taken to clean the surrounding areas, corners, and edges. Inspection is a regular duty of a housekeeper to ensure there is no pest infestation.
Periodic Maintenance
This involves deep cleaning of the carpet. Housekeepers should prepare a periodic schedule for this. When the dirt is visible deep cleaning should be done. Many properties carpet cleaning is contracted out because of the specialized equipment and skill required.

Three different methods of deep cleaning are:

Shampooing: Carpet shampooing machine can use either liquid or dry foam. Shampoos are anionic synthetic detergent and should be used in correct dilution. Liquid shampoo very little foam.
Dry-foam shampoos are actually also liquid, but they leave a dry foam on the surface of the carpet. Foam loosens the dirt holding the soil on the surface of the carpet which is removed through suction cleaners.
Hot water extraction: This is done by a hot-water extraction machine. The machine uses a shampoo solution that does not form foam. It injects the solution under high pressure through the pile to the back of the carpet, where it emulsifies and loosens dirt and grease.

(G.) Furniture and Fittings:-

Furniture may be defined as the movable articles that make a room suitable for living or working in, though with the advent of built-in furniture, the term 'movable ' may no longer be strictly applied to the definition.

Types of Furniture:-

Free-standing- This type of furniture can be rearranged whenever necessary, but the disadvantage is that they accumulate dust behind, above, and beneath them. Examples of free-standing furniture are traditional chairs and beds.
Cantilevered- Cantilevered furniture are fixed on brackets fitted to the wall and hence, there are no legs to get in the way of cleaning.
Built-in :-These pieces of furniture are fitted and fixed into architectural spaces set aside for them in the construction of the building. Usually their cost is incorporated into the building costs. Since built-in furniture has no gaps behind, above, or below, cleaning is minimized. However, the disadvantage is that once built in,the particular piece of furniture cannot be moved, thus reducing its flexibility.
Fitted- Though the terms 'built-in ' and 'fitted ' are often used interchangeably, there is a slight difference. Fitted furniture is made to fit into existing alcoves and niches, thereby saving space, but is essentially a standalone item with its own sides,base and top apart from the room walls, ceiling, or floor.

Based on their other characteristics, furniture may also be categorized as one or more of the following types:-

Upholstered- Good upholstered furniture consist of a webbed base, coiled springs, two layers of filling material, hessian, webbing, calico covering, and a decorative outer covering of fabric.
Modular- A manufacturer of modular furniture works to a standard basic measurement or module, so that different pieces can be joined together in a variety of ways to suit individual requirements. Modular furniture is usually built against a wall, and thus makes the most economical use of space within a room and simplifies floor cleaning.
Antique- Actual antique furniture will belong to a period before the year 1840, though nowadays any piece of furniture that is more than 100 years old is considered an antique. Good antiques are valuable and expensive.

Types of Furniture Joints:-

Dovetail- These joints are often found at drawer corners. Dovetails should fit together smoothly. Desks ,luggage racks, chests of drawers, and pieces that provide storage (called case goods) are primarily constructed using dovetail joints.
Double dowel- These joints use two dowels to peg the joint together. They are sturdy joints used to create the frame for case goods or to attach legs to the side rails of chairs.
Butt- These are joints in which two pieces are simply joined together end to end. They are weak joints and should not be used in places subject to stress or weight.
Mitre- These are used at the corner of tables where two angled surfaces meet to make up a right angle, and are reinforced with dowels, nails, screws, or a splint.
Tongue and groove- These joints are used to join two boards together, side by side, as in a table top, such that they slide into each other and hold together.
Mortise and tenon - These joints are the strongest of all when joining pieces of wood at right angles. The end of one piece of wood is shaped to fit into a hole in the other. This type of joint construction distributes stress over a wide area.
Corner block- These are used at corner joints as screwed reinforcement, to provide extra support, in quality furniture.

(H.) Accessories:-

'Accessories ' is a term that refers to most of the additional furnishings and elements needed to make a room viable in all senses. Accessories are decorative and functional articles that enhance the beauty of a room and bring in charm. The right accessories help to stress the decorative theme of the room. They are not essential in a room, but when used,they help to bring out the individually and add vitality to the room. They give the room a personal touch and make it look more lived-in.

Functions of Accessories:-

They add beauty to the room.
They are mostly both functional as well as decorative.
By use of accessories, it becomes easier to depict a theme in the room.
The room looks livelier and not bare.
They give a personal touch to the room.
They lend a lived-in look to the room.
They are a medium to show artistic expression.

Classification of Accessories:-

Functional Accessories- Table calendars, ash trays, pen stands,and lampshades are functional accessories. These articles are mainly functional but can be highly decorative too.
Object d'art - Paintings, ornamental mirrors, crystals,candle stands, sculptures in bronze, brass, stone, ceramics,and antique articles are mainly decorative articles.
Decorative Accents- This is a distinct class of accessories. These are not separate articles but decorative accents that bring charm and beauty to a room. Examples are piping on cushions, tassels on curtains, tessellated tiles on walls and floors, and so on.

Selection and Placement of Accessories:-

Accessories should be chosen not only for their beauty, but also to promote the appearance of a room as a unit and to project a theme.
Accessories should be selected to scale with the size of the room.
Accessories may be chosen according to the season. Richly coloured vases and pieces of pottery, warm-coloured lampshades,and rich oil paintings look good in winter. Fragile vases and vivid watercolours look good in the summer. Another way to obtain a cool look in the summer is to minimize the number of accessories, since a sense of bareness is also a sense of coolness.
Accessories should not be overdone. Too many accessories should not be used in a room else it may look crowded and the beauty of individual accessories will be lost.
Too little accessories also will not be noticed in a large room, especially if the accessories are small and delicate. In such cases a small group of accessories can be placed together.
Accessories should be placed or hung in a variety of areas, both vertical and horizontal, in a room. Walls,tables, tops of fireplace, floors, and ceilings should be utilized.
Accessories should be hamper or come in the way of the primary function of the place.
Ample plain background should be ensured to emphasize the accessories so that they create focal points to give the eyes a pleasant resting place, holding the attention at the point of interest.
Before finally placing the accessory, it should be tested out in different places to achieve maximum beauty.
All accessories should not generate the same level of interest. Some should be subdued, some more attractive.

Key Terms:-

Average Pile Density- This is the weight of pile yarn in a cubic yard of carpet. It is calculated by multiplying the pile weight by 36 and dividing the product by the pile height (in inches).
Face Weight- The amount of fibre (per square yard) that is the face of a carpet (total weight less the weight of the backing).
Gauge- In tufted carpets, the number of warp-pile yarns (ends) across the width is expressed by the gauge. A medium-weight carpet has a gauge of 1/8 and a heavy-duty carpet has a gauge of 5/64. Gauge is based on the number of needles or tufts per widthwise inch, expressed as a fraction.
GLS lamps- General lighting service lamps
Grains- Grains of wood in legs or posts of furniture should run vertically otherwise the chair or article might split with the grain.
Gypsum- Used to make plaster of paris, this is chemically hydrated calcium sulphate.
HPMV lamps- High Pressure Mercury Vapour lamps
HPSV lamps- High Pressure Sodium Vapour lamps
NRC - Noise Reduction Coefficient
PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride
Swags- Decorative drapery treatments meant to hide the curtain headings and usually tapering to a cascade (or tail).
Tint- A value that is lighter than the normal colour of a pigment is called a tint.
Valances- This is a decorative heading made of frilled or pleated material that hangs from a valance rail, fixed over the top of a curtain to hide the hardware and to add decoration.
Wainscot- A continuous type of wall panelling that extends from the floor to halfway up the wall.

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Housekeeping Notes Sem 6